El-Markha Plain Project:2002 Season: Project Personnel:
Summer 2002
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South Sinai (El-Markha) |
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Introduction:The South Sinai Survey and Excavation Project in Egypt is a long-term project with broad research objectives concerning the pharaonic exploitation of turquoise and copper in South Sinai and relations with the ancient Sinaitic Bedouin. The project objectives include (1) tracing the overland and maritime routes to South Sinai, (2) mapping and excavating selected examples of different site types in this region (e.g., forts, way-stations, anchorages, rest stops, mines, mining camps, and ancient bedouin camps), (3) publishing neglected aspects of pharaonic sites in South Sinai (such as mining camps, mapping the mines, and a representative corpus of pottery and other utilitarian artifacts), (4) assessing material cultural interactions between transient Egyptian expeditions and the indigenous, semi-nomadic pastoralists, and (5) locating archaeological sites through a combination of satellite image interpretation, Geographical Information Systems (GIS), and foot survey work. Beginning with some reconnaissance work in 2000 and 2001, and more in-depth survey and excavation in 2002, the project has initially focused upon El-Markha Plain (see maps below). Future seasons will expand to include survey and excavation work at Wadi Maghara, the 160 km stretch between Suez and El-Markha Plain, and the southern Isthmus of Suez.
Site 346: View looking north toward Pharaonic coastal site. (Photo: S. Parcak) |
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Egypt's Relations with South Sinai and the Red Sea Region:Since Prehistory, Egypt, Syria-Palestine, and an increasing number of surrounding regions have interacted variously with South Sinai and its inhabitants. The sporadic fertile wadis, oases, and other areas in South Sinai have long sustained small and fluctuating populations of semi-nomadic pastoralists and a few settlements. However, the presence and proximity of minerals (e.g., turquoise), metals (e.g., copper), maritime routes (e.g., Suez Canal and Red Sea spice trade), overland roads (Darb el-Hajj pilgrim route to Mecca; pilgrim roads from Elusa and Clysma to Mt. Sinai), Christian holy sites (e.g., Mt. Sinai; El-Tor), and diverse military considerations (i.e., offensive and defensive tactics), have generated varying degrees of external interest in this region. Such foreign influences and activities in South Sinai are evident in the archaeological and textual-pictorial records, while recent archaeological fieldwork and research augment our understanding of Sinai’s significance in the broader sphere of Egyptian, Near/Middle Eastern, and Old World civilizations. Map of Egypt and Sinai Peninsula,
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| In the Predynastic to Pharaonic periods, South Sinai provided copper and turquoise for Egypt and other regions. South Sinai initially exported such materials during the Chalcolithic (4300-3300 BC) to Early Bronze Age I-II (3300-2700 BC) periods, and later experienced direct Egyptian exploitation in the Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms. In the Old Kingdom (2700-2200 BC), Egyptian rulers sent expeditions to Wadi Maghara and Wadi Kharig. In the Middle Kingdom (2040-1665 BC) and most of the New Kingdom (Ahmose to Ramesses VI: 1555-1149 BC), Egypt expanded its operations to include Wadi Nasb and Serabit el-Khadim, while Reqeita and Timna (Negev) represent Ramesside period destinations (temp. Sety I to Ramesses V). In the Second Intermediate Period (1665-1555 BC), the Asiatic-derived Hyksos rulers, whose kingdom was based in the Egyptian delta, may have dispatched expeditions to South Sinai where Proto-Sinaitic inscriptions reveal hybrid Egyptian and Syro-Palestinian features. Although Egyptian maritime and overland expeditions to South Sinai faced intense hostilities throughout the Old Kingdom, the indigenous inhabitants diminished their attacks in subsequent periods. | ||||
Detail view of El-Markha Plain and its environs,
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Above: Pharaonic camp (left) and mines (right) at Wadi Maghara (Photos: G. Mumford) |
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| The Ptolemaic rulers increased Egypt’s trade with Arabia and India, establishing ports along the west coast of the Red Sea at Myos Hormos, Kosseir, and Berenice; they expanded the settlement at Wadi Feiran and the nearby port at El-Tor. In addition, Ptolemy II (285-246 BC) re-vitalized the port at Clysma (Suez), re-activating the Persian canal along the Wadi Tumilat and southern Isthmus of Suez. The settlements in Southwest Sinai remained relatively unscathed from wars (which sometimes affected North Sinai) between the Ptolemaic and Seleucid empires and from Nabataean piracy against Ptolemaic shipping in the Red Sea. Despite the Ptolemaic navy’s defeat of Nabataean pirates in the 2nd century BC, and Roman attacks in 64 and 55 BC, the Nabataean kingdom (West Jordan-Negev) managed to survive; King Malichus of Nabatae succeeded in burning the remnants of Cleopatra VII’s fleet at Clysma in the late 1st century BC. By 30 BC, however, Rome occupied Syria, Judea, Egypt, and northern Arabia. | ||||
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Above: Old and Middle Kingdom camp and text of Sahure (Dyn. 5) at Wadi Kharig (Photos: G. Mumford). |
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| During the subsequent Roman period, Rome expanded its control throughout the Near East. Although Rome failed to defeat the Sabaean kingdom in Southwest Arabia in 26 BC, and permitted the Nabataean kingdom to maintain some autonomy, Rome finally annexed the Nabataean Kingdom and Arabia in 106-7 AD. Under Trajan (98-117), Rome re-activated the Suez Canal and naval base at Cylsma, and maintained ports at El-Tor and along the west coast of the Red Sea. Despite this increase in Roman control and influence, Nabataean merchants continued to traverse South Sinai, leaving graffiti at Wadi Mukatteb (near Feiran). Beginning around 250, and culminating with Emperor Diocletian’s edict of 304, the most intense empire-wide persecution of Christians encouraged the foundation of Christian communities and monasteries in remote regions such as South Sinai. By 313 Constantine’s victory against the West Roman empire, the recognition of Christianity throughout the Roman and Byzantine empires, and the founding of Constantinople (324), ushered in a new era in the East Mediterranean. | ||||
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Pharaonic rock-cut texts and images at Bir Nasb (left) and Rod el-Air (right) (Photos: G. Mumford). |
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| During the Byzantine period, South Sinai became increasingly important and a focus for Christian pilgrimages (e.g., Elgeria’s travels ca.383) to Wadi Gharandel (Elim), Feiran (Paran), El-Tor, Mount Sinai, and other holy sites. In 330-37, Empress Helena visited Mt. Sinai and subsequently commissioned the construction of a church and tower. El-Tor became a major port in the Gulf of Suez, containing a fortified settlement, a church, and a monastery. Bedouin raids upon the rich caravans traveling to South Sinai encouraged the Emperor Justinian (527-65) to fortify and supply troops to the monastery at Mt. Sinai and key locations elsewhere (e.g., Gezirat el-Faroun in the Gulf of Elat). Although the early 7th century wars between the Persian and Byzantine empires resulted in Egypt falling under Persian control briefly, the rise of Islam had a more dramatic impact upon Egypt and Sinai, which came under Islamic control in 639-641. | ||||
Above left and right: Middle and New Kingdom Hathor Temple at Serabit el-Khadim (Photos: G. Mumford). |
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| Despite the spread of Islam, the monastery at Mount Sinai obtained protection from the prophet Mohammed and Christian pilgrims continued to visit Mount Sinai, albeit in much reduced numbers, from the 7th to 10th centuries. The Suez canal was re-opened by Amr ibn el-As in 642 to allow the shipment of Egyptian grain to the west coast of Arabia; it remained functional until its closure in 767 by Caliph Abu Jafr al-Mansur. Although diverse Byzantine attempts to attack and re-capture Egypt and the Sinai failed in the long-term (in 645, 673, 817, 853, 859, 970, 1116, 1168, 1177, and 1182), some Christian pilgrims still managed to visit Mount Sinai. By the 9th century, the drastically reduced and virtually non-existent community of monks at Mount Sinai was re-vitalized, however, through the report of the discovery of Saint Catherine’s body here. The renewed European interest in Mt. Sinai, and the initiation of Crusades and Crusader kingdoms in Palestine, brought a resurgence of pilgrims, gifts, and monks to the monastery, which changed its name to Saint Catherine (From 1099 to 1270 a Sinaitic order of Crusaders provided protection from Bedouin raids to pilgrims traveling to St. Catherine). | ||||
Above and right: The Monastery of St. Catherine at Mount Sinai (Photos: G. Mumford). |
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| In 1058 El-Tor replaced Clysma as the main Red Sea port, transhipping goods and pilgrims overland to and from Cairo. In the late 12th century, in anticipation of Crusader attacks, Saladin refortified and built forts across central Sinai (Darb el-Hajj), at Qalat el-Gundi and at Gezirat el-Faroun (an island in the Gulf of Elat). Despite Saladin’s fortification system, in 1182 Reynaud de Chatillon managed to besiege the fort at Gezirat el-Faroun and launched five ships into the Red Sea to attack Moslem merchant and pilgrim shipping. After a brief decline, in 1378 El-Tor resumed its role as a major Red Sea port. However, by 1479, after the fall of the Byzantine empire, the monastery of St. Catherine was abandoned temporarily, reflecting an overall decline in prosperity throughout South Sinai. | ||||
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Above left: Ayun Musa ("Wells of
Moses"): An oasis with 12 wells, 15 km southeast of Suez (Photo: G. Mumford)
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| European efforts to find alternate and less costly trade routes to the East, rather than through Islamic territories, culminated in Columbus’ discovery of America in 1492, Vasco da Gama’s circumnavigation of Africa in 1497-98, and Magellen’s voyage around South America in 1521. About this time, in 1517 (at the advent of the Ottoman empire), Sinai experienced a period of intensive fortress building at El-Tor, Nakhl (Darb el-Hajj), Nuweiba (East Sinai coast), El-Arish (North Sinai coast), and Kosseir (East Desert coast, southwest of Sinai). From the 16th to 17th centuries, the monastery of St. Catherine fluctuated in prosperity, while El-Tor declined as a major port and settlement. However, western influence began to increase at St. Catherine by the time of the Napoleonic expedition to Egypt in 1797-1804, while the 1869 construction of the modern Suez Canal returned prosperity and strategic importance to the Red Sea region and Sinai. Despite diverse modern conflicts, modern tourism has continued to increase the prosperity of South Sinai. | ||||
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Above left: Tell el-Qudeirat: Site associated with
Biblical Kadesh Barnea seen from nearby hilltop (Photo: G. Mumford).
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